The Argentine parrot (Myiopsitta monachus) and the Kramer parrot (Psittacula krameri) have come to symbolize the spread of invasive species in urban landscapes, especially in cities. Although they have long preferred densely populated areas, both species have expanded across the Iberian Peninsula since 1991, reaching every corner. A recent article in the journal Diversity and Distributions, led by CREAF researcher Laura Cardador, explains that cities and major highways served as springboards for the parrots to settle and become established residents on the Peninsula.
These parrots are notably fast-growing newcomers. The first Argentine parrot sighting in this region was recorded in 1975 in Barcelona. By the early 1980s, it showed up in Madrid and Puerto de la Cruz in Tenerife. Current data from the SEO/BirdLife census in 2015 indicate that the species now inhabits at least 15 autonomous communities, 27 provinces, and 142 municipalities, with Madrid and Barcelona as major breeding hubs.
For the Kramer parrot, the earliest record on the Peninsula traces back to 1970 in Zorita, Cáceres. By the early 1980s, sightings extended to Portugal and several Canary Islands and mainland cities, including La Laguna, Maspalomas, Gijón, Málaga, Almería, and Santarém. The 2015 SEO/BirdLife census shows the Spanish population dispersed across at least seven autonomous communities and one autonomous city, covering 13 provinces and 34 municipalities, with a broad distribution in both urban and peri-urban areas.
This study reinforces a conclusion long discussed in the scientific community: human-modified habitats play a pivotal role in the spread and persistence of invasive species. Urban settings, degraded landscapes on the periphery, and infrastructure linking anthropized regions all contribute to the expansion process.
Species that love urban habitats
Why have these parrots thrived in cities? One reason is the deliberate or accidental release of pet parrots by people living in urban environments. Yet this explanation does not fully capture the broader pattern, as both species continued to colonize new areas after 2005, when trade restrictions on these parrots were tightened in Europe.
Researchers propose another important factor: the strong link between human-modified surroundings and the parrots’ movements. Urban-dwelling birds can move easily along roads, railways, and other infrastructures that connect cities and altered landscapes. This connectivity helps them spread to newly urbanized zones across the Peninsula.
The study also finds that these parrots appear pre-adapted to city life. In their natural environments they already tolerate a broad range of conditions, which suggests they can weather the reduced presence of predators in urban areas. This resilience translates into successful breeding, the development of innovative foraging strategies, and the use of diverse food sources within human-dominated spaces.
Citizen participation
Much of the data powering the study came from citizen science platforms. People across the Peninsula contributed sightings from 1991 through 2016, sharing observations of parrots in a variety of settings. As Cardador notes, citizen science and long-running records from multiple media, field journals, and local atlases can be integrated into mathematical models to improve our understanding of how biological invasions unfold.
The research emphasizes that parrots have expanded in tandem with human-adapted landscapes. Cardador also states that the model developed offers a practical starting point for prioritizing management actions. It helps identify areas vulnerable to new colonization and spots where human activity and sensitive native species could be most affected by the parrots.
The investigation was carried out by a consortium of institutions, including the Doñana Biological Station, the University of Seville, researchers from Montpellier, the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research in Berlin, the Pirenaico Ecology Institute, the University of Zaragoza, and Pablo de Olavide University in Seville.
Reference work: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ddi.13591
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