The emergence of Czechoslovakia occurred in 1918, in the aftermath of World War I and the disintegration of Austria-Hungary. Two Slavic peoples pursued independence for generations, and their efforts culminated in a new state. Yet in the region now known as the Czech lands and Slovakia, a substantial German minority persisted, becoming a national minority in a state where they faced suspicion and resentment.
The Czechoslovak Germans rejected the new status. They believed the Slavic state was oppressing them and infringing on their rights. It was not easy to secure employment in government institutions without Czech language proficiency, and German schools faced recurrent closures. In total, about 3.3 million Germans lived within the new state, and in the Sudetenland, which bordered the country along its northern, western, and southern edges, they represented a dominant share—well over 90 percent.
Hitler’s first attempt
In 1933, the Sudeten German Party appeared. Its rise paralleled the ascent of the Nazi movement in Germany, though it linked itself to the earlier National Socialist ideas before fully embracing them. At first, the Sudeten German Party rejected Nazism, admired the old Habsburg era, and pushed for annexing the German-speaking areas of the Czech lands to Austria. Alternatively, some German nationalists urged reforms in Czechoslovakia modeled on Switzerland, granting broad autonomy to the Sudetenland.
Nevertheless, Adolf Hitler aimed to unite all Germans into one state, extending even beyond lands historically part of the German Empire. The March 1938 Anschluss of Austria intensified his focus on German communities outside borders. Konrad Henlein, leader of the Sudeten German Party, met with Hitler to begin planning the separation of German areas from Czechoslovakia.
In April, Henlein demanded immunized autonomy for Germans in the country as soon as possible. Activists plotted to turn the May elections into a referendum on secession and to stage a coup. Meanwhile, German troops began to withdraw to the borders, and Hitler approved measures that envisaged occupying the country.
Czechoslovakia declared partial mobilization and prepared to defend itself. The country boasted a war-ready army, built around the Sudetenland’s industrial power and fortifications set in the mountains there. A smooth advance to Prague in the spring of 1938 was unlikely, an outcome that could be avoided only with strong alliances. Czechoslovakia found support from France and the Soviet Union, and Poland was ready to join Western states in defense. Hitler temporarily retreated, then orchestrated a larger provocation to force Western concessions.
Policy of Appeasement
Hitler pressed at the right moment, exploiting the Western hesitation that followed Germany’s World War I defeat. While Germany’s defeat lingered in Europe’s memory, the seeds of resentment fueled a revivalist mood among German nationalists seeking territory and power.
Britain and France faced difficult domestic pressures. The memory of disabled veterans in graceful parades, the costs of victory, and a fear of another war weighed on public opinion. In response, their governments pushed Czechoslovakia toward negotiations and sent Lord Runciman to mediate. He urged concessions that would grant autonomy to the Sudetenland, and upon returning home, he pressed for these areas to be handed over to Germany.
One diplomat described the Sudeten Germans as enduring despair for years, yet finding new hope with the rise of Nazi Germany. The policy of appeasement gained a leading advocate in British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain.
In early September, pro-Nazi Sudeten activists staged riots, and Czech authorities moved to suppress them. Soon Hitler declared that the Czechoslovak leadership was undermining the Sudeten Germans and delivered a speech seen as a belligerent signal. Chamberlain requested a personal meeting with Hitler in early September and returned to England with a plan to resolve the crisis alongside France.
The Great Powers demanded that Czechoslovakia cede all territories with a German population exceeding 50 percent. Initially, the Czech government rejected this demand. Subsequent meetings showed Hitler presenting himself as formidable, using exaggerated reports of alleged Czech atrocities and vowing vengeance. The Czech people responded with spirited mobilization, summoning a million volunteers within 24 hours as the country prepared to defend itself. The Nazis pledged that the Sudetenland would be Germany’s last territorial claim.
Chamberlain sought to persuade the British public to accept concessions after this display, expressing concern about a distant quarrel becoming a trench-warfare memory. Meanwhile, Hitler recruited Sudeten German Freikorps activists, who carried out attacks on Czech troops and attacked government facilities.
Munich agreement
Around September 29–30, 1938, representatives from Britain, France, Germany, and Italy met in Munich without Czechoslovakia. The negotiations stretched into the night, and on September 30 the parties signed the Munich Agreement. Under its terms, the German army was to complete the Sudetenland occupation by October 10, with an international body deciding the futures of other disputed regions. Czechoslovakia faced a stark choice: surrender or fight Germany alone.
Returning home, Chamberlain proclaimed that he had brought peace for his generation. The Czechs were compelled to surrender, and the Sudetenland fell under German control, fortified with defensive lines and mines. France’s security commitments with Czechoslovakia were shown to be hollow. After the agreement, Poland and Hungary joined in claiming parts of Czechoslovakia, and by March 1939 Hitler forced the state to yield to occupation. Bohemia and Moravia were declared German protectorates.
The annexation era saw Czechoslovak industry used for German military purposes. The Reich absorbed thousands of weapons and supplies, contributing to Germany’s campaigns in Poland and France. The Munich Agreement marked the culmination of appeasement and signaled the end of Western concessions to Hitler.
[citation needed] The events surrounding Munich remain debated, with historians noting the dramatic shift in European security and the cost to Czechoslovakia among the many consequences of the policy that preceded World War II. Reference materials provide a context for understanding how the balance of power in Europe shifted so quickly, paving the way for further aggression and the broader conflict that followed.]