“Fighting France”
Charles de Gaulle, II. He gained global notoriety as the leader of the anti-Nazi resistance in France during World War II. In June 1940, after a crushing defeat, Paris and much of the north fell to Germany, and the veteran field marshal Philippe Pétain rose to power within the remnants of the country. Pétain’s stance leaned toward collaboration with fascist powers and the dissolution of the republic. After meeting Hitler at Montoire, France appeared to be steering toward direct cooperation with the Nazis.
Not all French accepted the fascist regime and surrender, which gave rise to a resistance movement in the colonies under General de Gaulle, backed by Britain. This marked a distinct struggle against the German occupation. De Gaulle quickly organized capable armed forces, consolidated colonial possessions, and fought alongside the anti-Hitler coalition. De Gaulle’s troops entered Paris with American forces in August 1944, and the combined arms front that carried the name Fighting France took part in the subsequent invasion of southern France that year.
After the war, de Gaulle stepped down from a governing role and withdrew from frontline politics for a time, returning briefly in 1947 to establish the French People’s Rally party. In essence, the general led a life shaped by a soldier’s discipline, publishing memoirs and corresponding with comrades who had shared in the struggle.
The price of empire
During this interlude, France faced a fresh crisis as anti-colonial movements surged across its empire. The era of the Fourth Republic, spanning 1946 to 1958, endured severe strain. The rebels could not prevail in conventional warfare, suffering heavy losses, while the colonial populations endured hardship under colonial rule. The United States watched the upheaval with concern as Britain exited colonies with relatively little resistance, and France pressed on with Indochina War operations from 1946 to 1954 to retain influence over Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
The French government did not commit large-scale deployment of troops to Indochina, instead relying on volunteers. This strategy culminated in a disastrous defeat at Dien Bien Phu, where a 14,000-strong French force faced roughly 80,000 Vietnamese fighters and surrendered. The conflict ended with the loss of more than 70,000 French lives and thousands of colonial citizens. France withdrew from Indochina, leaving the United States to grapple with the region in the ensuing decades.
The situation diverged markedly in French Algeria, where resistance to colonial rule intensified. The leadership of de Gaulle was remembered as a beacon during earlier crises, while Algeria presented a new, stubborn challenge. A notable firm stance is captured in the words attributed to Pierre Mendes-France in 1954, asserting that Algeria would remain part of France and that no concession would erode the Republic’s integrity. This determination endured as the crisis deepened.
Algeria housed a substantial community of French settlers who resisted departure and pressed the government to maintain control. France mobilized reserves and deployed tens of thousands of soldiers to Algeria. By 1956, as many as 400,000 troops were stationed there, employing a range of tactics, including early helicopter insertions. The empire’s fragility became evident, and many linked the strain to the central government’s weakness, contrasting with de Gaulle’s earlier aura of decisive leadership.
I’m too old to be a dictator
Even with a massive force array on the European front, the Algerian rebellion could not be crushed. Persistent losses and political upheaval prompted Prime Minister Pierre Pflimren to seek negotiations with the Algerian National Liberation Front. Public sentiment split: while many supported liberating Algeria, a sizable majority opposed sending their own sons to fight there.
Some soldiers and supporters believed the government was not doing enough and viewed the political shift as treachery. On May 13, 1958, Governor-General Jacques Soustelle led a coup in Algeria, backed by disgruntled soldiers and far-right activists who demanded a unity government in Paris with emergency powers. They wanted de Gaulle at the helm to prevent a French withdrawal from Algeria. If refused, the plotters threatened an aerial strike on Paris to seize power directly.
On May 19, de Gaulle announced his willingness to help by taking charge of the republic, while insisting on legal transfer of power and rejecting the idea of suspending civil liberties. Journalists pressed him about the potential rollback of freedoms, and he asserted that rights were restored when they had previously disappeared. He asked whether anyone believed he would start a dictatorship at the age of 67.
The coup plotters did not hesitate to escalate: an airborne operation was planned to land paratroopers near Paris, with armored support, but the attempt faltered as the defense of the mainland remained uncertain. NATO membership, concerns about the USSR, and the ambition to build an atomic force complicated matters. In response, President Rene Coty urged a swift transition to de Gaulle, advocating constitutional reform and a return to stability.
Fifth Republic
De Gaulle led the transitional government and drafted the framework of the Fifth Republic, marked by a strong presidential system and a seven-year term. The election in November 1958 produced a victory for de Gaulle, who was inaugurated on January 8, 1959. The policy changes included ending the Algerian War and recognizing Algerian independence in a 1962 referendum. De Gaulle, a nationalist who admired the imperial scale of past French power and saw Napoleon as an inspiration, also understood the price of prolonged warfare. He recognized that Western democracies could no longer suppress the aspirations of colonized peoples.
This stance provoked anger in far-right circles. In April 1961, a renewed coup attempt sought to topple de Gaulle by force, but he refused to abandon the republic and publicly urged loyalty through unity. While some units supported the rebellion, many others remained loyal, and the attempt collapsed. The later stage of the crisis saw extreme actions by a dissident faction that targeted the president. On August 22, 1962, a group linked to the OAS-Métropole intercepted the presidential motorcade and opened fire. The attack failed to kill de Gaulle, though it exposed the threats facing the young republic.
The conspirators were eventually arrested. Air Force Colonel Jean-Marie Bastien-Thiry was sentenced to death, while two other leaders faced similar fates; one was later pardoned for his acts of bravery amid the chaos. Before leaving power in 1968, de Gaulle granted clemency to many involved in the conspiracy.