Vivianite, sometimes called the necromineral or mineral of the dead, is a striking and little-known phosphate mineral. Its chemical formula is Fe3(PO4)2−(H2O)8, and it forms in organic-rich environments such as fossil shells, decayed wood, animal waste deposits, and even decaying remains. This mineral may appear in pale, pale white or transparent crystals, and it often proves extremely brittle. When exposed to light, vivianite gradually darkens due to oxidation, shifting from pale tones to blue, then deeper greens and purples, finally arriving at a purplish-black hue.
Vivianite thrives in iron-rich sedimentary settings that contain bone, decayed wood, and other organic residues, especially within clay and sandstone. Its crystal structure is admired for its beauty, yet its brittleness can be a defining feature when studied in situ. The darkening of the crystals with light exposure is a notable characteristic that helps scientists identify and understand its formation history in different environments.
Interaction between iron, water and phosphate
Why does vivianite appear on corpses? The key lies in the interaction of iron, water, and phosphate. The human body stores large amounts of phosphate, particularly in teeth and bones. As a body decomposes, phosphate is released into the surrounding environment. When iron ions and water are present, the released phosphate can react to form vivianite, embedding itself in organic and mineral matrices around the remains.
Most instances of vivianite linked to corpses have been observed in remains buried for centuries. There are even older examples where the mineral shows up in mammoth tusks and bones that are thousands of years old. In some cases, vivianite has been identified in more recent human remains as well. The mineral’s appearance often marks specific geochemical conditions at the burial site.
In historical contexts, archaeologists have noted vivianite formation under iron-rich conditions where the surrounding environment allowed iron ions to diffuse and interact with phosphate released during decomposition. This process can yield vivid crystals in regions of the body where phosphate concentration is high and the local chemistry favors vivianite growth. The result is a mineral record that offers clues about burial conditions and postmortem chemistry.
In the 1960s, researchers found several corpses near Lake Walchen in Germany, many nearly skeletal and with adipose tissuelike fat still present. One body was fixed to an iron plate, and vivianite formed between the plate and the oil. Analysis of the clothing suggested the body had been submerged for roughly 30 to 50 years, with the iron plate releasing enough iron ions to promote vivianite growth in the most phosphate-rich areas.
Further evidence emerged in 1998 when a different research team examined remains of a U.S. soldier missing since 1963 during the Vietnam War. The mineral analysis indicated the body was likely buried in moist soil beside parts of a downed aircraft, providing a steady supply of iron and phosphate to facilitate vivianite formation.
Also found in the Ice Man Ötzi
This mineral has been detected throughout the body of the remarkably well-preserved 5,300-year-old Ice Man, known as Ötzi. The crystal was found not only on the skin surface but also in tissues such as lungs, which underscores how extensively vivianite can form in certain postmortem environments. Ötzi’s case is believed to reflect interaction with iron-bearing rocks in the surrounding geology, contributing to the mineral’s development within and around his body.
Similarly, another vivianite-covered body was discovered in a bay on Lake Brienz, Switzerland, in 1996. It is thought to belong to a man who drowned in the 18th century, illustrating how vivianite can persist in diverse aquatic burial contexts over long periods.
The mineral’s name honors the English geologist John Henry Vivian, who first described vivianite in the 19th century in Cornwall, England. Today, the most significant deposits are found in Bolivia, Germany, Romania, England, and Austria. In Spain, vivianite appears in regions such as Murcia and Asturias, among others, highlighting its broad geographic distribution and the varied geochemical settings that support its formation.
Vivianite research continues to illuminate the interplay of iron, phosphorus, and water in burial environments. By studying the mineral’s presence in ancient remains, scientists gain insights into historical burial practices, environmental conditions, and the chemical narratives that bones and tissues hold long after death.