One gram per ten tons
Radioactivity emerged as a scientific mystery in the late 1800s. In 1896, a French physicist, Henri Becquerel, observed that uranium salts emit rays far more penetrating than X rays. These rays affected nothing in the surrounding material, revealing radioactivity as an intrinsic property of the substance itself.
The finding drew in many researchers who sought to understand the cause of these emissions and to identify other radioactive materials. Marie and Pierre Curie joined the effort, focusing on pitchblende, the primary ore of uranium, and on torbernite, a uranium-containing mineral. A key tool in their investigations was a highly sensitive electrometer devised by Pierre Curie. It became clear that the stronger the radioactivity of a sample, the better the surrounding air conducted electricity.
From this work, it became evident that pitchblende was more active than plain uranium, indicating the presence of another chemical substance driving the effect.
To isolate this component, the Curies employed physical and chemical techniques. They ground the ore after extracting uranium, dissolved it in acids, and conducted a sequence of reactions to concentrate the unknown residue.
Progress was slow. The concentration of the sought substance was minuscule, and hundreds of kilograms of ore had to be processed before results appeared. In the summer of 1898 they succeeded in producing a compound of a new element, named polonium in honor of Mary’s homeland, Poland. It behaved chemically like bismuth, and since pitchblende lacked any bismuth, isolation posed no major obstacle.
Later that year, chemists achieved another breakthrough. A radioactive salt mixture produced a striking signal when heated in a flame, showing bright green hues for barium and crimson across a prism. The new element resembled barium chemically, though its salts were less soluble, enabling identification. On December 26, 1898, the Curies reported radium to the Paris Academy of Sciences. The name radium comes from Latin roots meaning ray.
By 1902, researchers isolated tiny amounts of radium chloride from pitchblende, and purity of the metal followed only by 1910.
Charge water with uranium
The Curies’ discoveries left a lasting mark on science and history. They fueled advances in understanding atomic structure and helped establish the concept of radioactive decay and nuclear synthesis, which underpin the diversity of matter in the universe.
Public interest in radiation extended beyond the laboratory. In the early 20th century, radiation was viewed with curiosity and concern, and it was sometimes proposed as a cure, long before medical applications were clear. As reliable detectors spread, scientists measured radiation levels worldwide. They found elevated radioactivity in some mineral waters, traceable to dissolved radon gas.
People had long used hot springs and mineral waters for health benefits, often without knowing why they helped. The idea that radioactivity might explain healing effects was one of many hypotheses in the era before nuclear medicine was understood.
Entrepreneurs quickly saw opportunity and sold radon-infused waters in bottles. A famous example in the post-Soviet sphere was Borjomi, once advertised as radioactive. The marketing stopped when the true health effects became clearer.
Radon has a short half-life, about 3.82 days, which meant most of the radioactivity faded by the time the product reached consumers. This spurred a different business idea: packaging water with minerals like carnotite, which contains uranium and radium, to generate radon in situ. Such devices proved harmful, and modern practice emphasizes minimizing radon in living spaces and water supplies.
During this era, several brands promoted so-called healing waters with radioactive compounds. Radithor, for instance, was a bottled product whose use led to fatal outcomes for some. A notable case was Eben Byers, whose obituary in 1932 described the tragic consequences of heavy radium ingestion.
The face shines not from holiness but from radium
In the early 20th century, many quick schemes appeared to claim health benefits from radiation. One infamous device, the Radiendocrinator, combined a small box with a radioactive source aimed at endocrine glands, risking serious damage over time.
France saw Tho-Radia market radium-containing creams, toothpastes, and soaps. Some products claimed that tiny radiation doses could stimulate living cells and boost energy. In reality, cellular energy comes from chemical bonds, and radiation largely harms tissues by damaging DNA.
Despite the risks, these products sold well, and imitators appeared. Some even tested radium in bread, while others sold uranium-containing sand for therapy in the mid-20th century, exposing patients to unsafe doses in simplistic setups.
Medical experts later stressed that radiation treatment is effective only for specific conditions and with carefully controlled doses and sources. A widely cited radiologist from a nuclear medicine institute emphasized that radiation is not a universal tonic for the body, and broad, indiscriminate use should be avoided.
Over time, the field moved toward evidence-based nuclear medicine. Today, radiation therapy is a precise tool for cancer and certain thyroid conditions, usually involving targeted isotopes like iodine-131. Modern research continues to refine these approaches and expand safe, effective options.
Recent developments include targeted radiopharmaceuticals that deliver active radioactive substances to tumor cells. A notable example uses lutetium-177 bound to specific peptides, which accumulate in certain cancers and help destroy malignant tissue with focused radiation. This approach is reserved for advanced cases and is part of a broader effort to extend life while balancing safety and quality of life.